{"id":7,"date":"2019-09-03T10:05:48","date_gmt":"2019-09-03T10:05:48","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/ww4.mywebsparks.com\/nus_sde\/csac\/?page_id=7"},"modified":"2026-02-19T03:54:13","modified_gmt":"2026-02-19T03:54:13","slug":"home","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/","title":{"rendered":"Home"},"content":{"rendered":"\r\n<h1>Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities (CSAC)<\/h1>\r\n<h2>Introduction<\/h2>\r\n<p>The Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities (CSAC) serves as a dynamic hub for developing innovative urban planning, design solutions, and advanced building technologies tailored for high-density environments. These solutions are designed to be applicable not only to cities across Asia but also to other developing regions facing similar challenges.<\/p>\r\n<p>CSAC complements national efforts, particularly those led by Singapore&#8217;s Ministry of National Development, by contributing research and expertise to create practical solutions and establish best practices for more sustainable and liveable cities.<\/p>\r\n<p>The Centre actively collaborates with international universities and organises research workshops and seminars. Through these events, CSAC brings together experts to discuss pressing issues, co-develop solutions, and share research findings and ideas.<\/p>\r\n<p>With a strong focus on Asian urban contexts, CSAC aims to advance knowledge in sustainable city development, shape professional practices, and influence thinking within the field of urban sustainability.<\/p>\r\n<p><em>(Image sources: https:\/\/designsingapore.org\/initiatives\/loveable-singapore-project\/; PLAB: A Research and Design Investigation of the Redevelopment of the Paya Lebar Airbase; Typology Study for Public Housing in Dover)<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/introduction\/\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\r\n<h2>Research Projects<\/h2>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/research-projects-2\/\" target=\"_self\"> View All <\/a> <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Timber Active Envelope\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Timber-Active-Envelope.jpg\" alt=\"The Active Timber Envelope (ATE) system integrates two modular and unitised active technologies: solar PV and vertical farming. ATE offers customisable facade options, including an opaque solar PV facade with insulation and a semi-transparent double-glazed facade with integrated vertical farming, to meet specific building design requirements.\" width=\"601\" height=\"409\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"Timber Active Envelopes: Modular Facades for Resilient Built Environments (April 2024 - December 2025)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/timber-active-envelopes-project\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> Timber Active Envelopes: Modular Facades for Resilient Built Environments (April 2024 &#8211; December 2025) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>This multidisciplinary research project tackles critical challenges in decarbonising the construction sector, enhancing building energy sufficiency, strengthening food security, and bolstering urban resilience. The project focuses on developing innovative, high-performance fa\u00e7ade systems for multi-storey buildings using low-carbon materials, such as mass timber, which are integrated with active technologies for renewable energy production, including Building-Integrated Photovoltaics &#8211; BIPVs, and vertical farming (Building-Integrated Agriculture &#8211; BIA).<\/p>\r\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"Fig 3\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Fig-3.png\" alt=\"Figure 3. The phylogenetic network of Singapore shophouse facades.\" width=\"1267\" height=\"1607\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"Decoding Vernacular Architecture by Guiding Human Intuition with Deep Learning (January 2024 - April 2025)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/decoding-vernacular-architecture-by-guiding-human-intuition-with-deep-learning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> Decoding Vernacular Architecture by Guiding Human Intuition with Deep Learning (January 2024 &#8211; April 2025) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>This study proposes a systematic research framework that leverages intelligent technologies to augment researchers&#8217; intuition in mapping or uncovering the genealogy of vernacular architecture and its connotative socio-cultural systems. The proposed vision-intelligent framework is predicated on the premise that the interpretation of historical artefacts is a process of identifying a function <em>f<\/em> from a discrete data set. This process begins with the formulation of a hypothesis, followed by three phases &#8211; <em>collection<\/em>, <em>categorisation<\/em>, and <em>interpretation<\/em> &#8211; and culminates in the <em>verification<\/em> of the hypothesis and the <em>articulation<\/em> of final explanations.<\/p>\r\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"03_HD HERE Framework1\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/06\/03_HD-HERE-Framework1.jpg\" alt=\"03_HD HERE Framework1\" width=\"1044\" height=\"712\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"A Health District Framework to Evaluate Planning Scenarios (October 2021 - October 2023)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/a-health-district-framework\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> A Health District Framework to Evaluate Planning Scenarios (October 2021 &#8211; October 2023) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>This study seeks to develop a health district framework to help planners and policymakers assess planning scenarios at the town level in Singapore, reviewing relevant literature, identifying key components and quantifiable indicators, and creating planning principles for evaluation. The framework aims to guide planning practices and policy formulation, and future work will focus on measuring the importance of each component to support comprehensive multi-criteria decision-making.<\/p>\r\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"WeChat Image_20220822104251(1)\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/06\/WeChat-Image_202208221042511.jpg\" alt=\"WeChat Image_20220822104251(1)\" width=\"1411\" height=\"1058\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"Healthy District Baseline Study of Dawson (October 2021 - October 2023)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/healthy-district-baseline-study-of-dawson\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> Healthy District Baseline Study of Dawson (October 2021 &#8211; October 2023) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>NUS, in partnership with the National University Health System (NUHS), Housing &amp; Development Board (HDB), and other stakeholders from the public, private, and people sectors, has embarked on a pioneering collaboration to develop the Health District @ Queenstown pilot project. As part of this initiative, the Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities at NUS conducted the &#8216;Healthy District Baseline Study of Dawson&#8217;. This study aimed to identify the health priorities and environmental needs of Dawson residents, pinpoint existing gaps, and guide the development of healthy districts across Singapore.<\/p>\r\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"loveable-singapore-project-1\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/06\/loveable-singapore-project-1.png\" alt=\"loveable-singapore-project-1\" width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"Loveable Singapore Project (NUS Study) (December 2020 - May 2021)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/loveable-singapore-project\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> Loveable Singapore Project (NUS Study) (December 2020 &#8211; May 2021) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>NUS conducted two studies: one developed a knowledge framework on what makes places &#8220;loveable,&#8221; while the other used design ethnography to explore how Singaporeans form attachments to eating spaces and public areas in HDB neighbourhoods. Guided by research questions on tangible and intangible aspects of place attachment, the studies combined literature review, field observations, and other engagement methods to better understand different perceptions of loveability in urban spaces.<\/p>\r\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"PLAB\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/06\/PLAB-2.jpg\" alt=\"PLAB\" width=\"600\" height=\"448\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2><a title=\"PLAB: A Research and Design Investigation of the Redevelopment of the Paya Lebar Airbase (2020 - 2022)\" href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/a-research-and-design-investigation-of-the-redevelopment-of-the-paya-lebar-airbase\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> PLAB: A Research and Design Investigation of the Redevelopment of the Paya Lebar Airbase (2020 &#8211; 2022) <\/a><\/h2>\r\n<p>The NUS Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities (CSAC), in collaboration with the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA), brought together a multidisciplinary team to redesign the 1,870-hectare site comprising PLAB and its surroundings. Building upon CSAC&#8217;s work on the &#8220;1-minute neighbourhood&#8221; at Dover Road, this study refines the land use concept of &#8220;bands&#8221; applied at various scales to boost accessibility, connectivity, and urban convenience.<\/p>\r\n<h2>Our Publications<\/h2>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/publications\/\" target=\"_self\"> View All <\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Timber-Active-Envelope.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2>Timber Active Envelopes: Modular Facades for Resilient Built Environments<\/h2>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><em>PIs: <strong>Dr Eugenia GASPARRI, Prof HENG Chye Kiang<br \/><\/strong>Co-PIs:\u00a0<strong>Dr Aysu KURU, Assoc Prof Arianna BRAMBILLA, Dr CHEN Tianyi, Dr Carlos CLEMENT, Prof NG Ming Shan<\/strong><\/em><\/h5>\r\n<p>Zhang Y., Chen T., Gasparri E., Lucchi E. (2025) A Modular Agrivoltaics Building Envelope Integrating Thin-Film Photovoltaics and Hydroponic Urban Farming Systems: A Circular Design Approach with the Multi-Objective Optimization of Energy, Light, Water and Structure. <em>Sustainability<\/em> 17(2), 666. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su17020666\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su17020666<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/timber-active-envelopes-project\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Timber-Active-Envelope.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Fig-2-1.png\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2>Decoding Vernacular Architecture by Guiding Human Intuition with Deep Learning<\/h2>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><em>PI: <strong>Prof HENG Chye Kiang<\/strong>\u00a0<strong><br \/><\/strong>Co-PIs:\u00a0<strong>LI Jiali; CHANG T C, XUE Xuan, YANG Yaotian, TIAN Zihui<\/strong><\/em><\/h5>\r\n<p>Xue X., Yang Y., Tian Z., Chang T. C., Heng C. K. (2025) A Vision-Intelligent Framework for Mapping the Genealogy of Vernacular Architecture. Submitted for publication.<\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2505.18552\">https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2505.18552<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/decoding-vernacular-architecture-by-guiding-human-intuition-with-deep-learning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Fig-2-1.png\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/BIPV2.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2>Cost-effective High-power Density BIPV Modules<\/h2>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><em>PI:\u00a0<strong>Dr Kong Fai TAI (SERIS, NUS)<\/strong>\u00a0<strong><br \/><\/strong>Co-PIs:\u00a0<strong>Dr Jai Prakash SINGH (SERIS), Prof HENG Chye Kiang<\/strong><\/em><\/h5>\r\n<p>Chen T., Heng C. K., Leow S. W. (2023) Reimagining Building Fa\u00e7ades: The Prefabricated Unitized BIPV Walls (PUBW) for High-Rises | IntechOpen <em>Fa\u00e7ade Design <a href=\"https:\/\/www.intechopen.com\/chapters\/88062\">DOI: 10.5772\/intechopen.112878<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/cost-effective-high-power-density-bipv-modules\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/BIPV2.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Elderly-social-interactions1.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h2>Impact of Elevated Neighbourhood Open Spaces on the Elderly&#8217;s Social Interactions in Singapore&#8217;s Public Housing<\/h2>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><em>PI: Cao Yuxin<\/em><\/h5>\r\n<p>Cao, Y., Heng, C. K., &amp; Fung, J. C. (2023). Older Adults&#8217; Out-of-Home Activities in a Super-Aged High-Rise, High-Density Neighbourhood: A Qualitative Study. <em>Journal of Aging and Environment<\/em>, 37(1), 100-125. doi:<a href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/26892618.2021.2001709\">1080\/26892618.2021.2001709<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/26892618.2021.2001709\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2025\/07\/Elderly-social-interactions1.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/9781849713764.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h3>Urban Climatic Mapping Studies for Singapore<strong><br \/><\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><em>PI: Prof Wong Nyuk Hien<\/em><\/h5>\r\n<p><em>The Urban Climate Map &#8211; for sustainable urban planning.<\/em> Wong, NH., Jusuf, S.K., Katzschner, L. and Ng, E. Urban climatic map studies in Singapore. In: Ren, C. and Ng, Y. (Eds.). Chapter in book.<\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/urban-climatic-mapping-studies-for-singapore\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/9781849713764.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/Refarming_Urban_space_.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h3><strong>Urban Space Planning for Sustainable High-Density Environments<br \/><\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><i>PI: Assoc Prof Cho Im Sik <\/i><\/h5>\r\n<p><em>Re-Framing Urban Space: Urban Design for Emerging Hybrid and High-Density Conditions<\/em> (CHO, Im Sik, HENG, Chye Kiang &amp; TRIVIC, Zdravko), Routledge. <a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/urban-space-planning-for-sustainable-high-density-environments\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/Refarming_Urban_space_.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/CIE2012.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h3>High-Density Threshold Studies<strong><br \/><\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><i>PIs: Prof Heng Chye Kiang and Dr Malone-Lee Lai Choo <\/i><\/h5>\r\n<p><em>Development of Daylight and View Performance Indicators for Urban Analysis<\/em> (Zhang, Ji; Huang, Yichun, 2012). CIE 2012, Hangzhou, China. Oral Presentation. <a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/research\/high-density-threshold-studies\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/CIE2012.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/Capture-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n<h3><strong>Benchmark, Best Practices and Framework for Sustainable Urban Development and Cities<br \/><\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<h5 align=\"left\"><i>PIs: Prof Heng Chye Kiang | Dr Lai Choo Malone-Lee <\/i><\/h5>\r\n<p><em>Urban Sustainability Indicators: A Guidebook\u00a0<\/em>(Malone-Lee Lai Choo, Devisari Tunas, Heng Chye Kiang, Routledge. <a href=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2019\/11\/Full-template-for-Benchmark-Booklet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read more<\/a> <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/29\/2020\/01\/Capture-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/p>\r\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities (CSAC) Introduction The Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities (CSAC) serves as a dynamic hub for developing innovative urban planning, design solutions, and advanced building technologies tailored for high-density environments. These solutions are designed to be applicable not only to cities across Asia but also to other developing regions facing similar [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":92,"featured_media":14424,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"set","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-7","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/92"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=7"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":14616,"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7\/revisions\/14616"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/14424"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/cde.nus.edu.sg\/csac\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=7"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}